Philosopher (era)
Position
Statement
Connection
Ptahhotep (Egypt, Fifth Dynasty, c. 2400 BC.)
Agreement
The just order (Ma'at) links human conduct to the order of the world.
The inner man aligns himself with the cosmic order through refined conduct.
Source : Maximes
Agreement
A cosmic Purusha whose body is the world; a single, invisible origin from which desire and thought are born.
Macrocosm and microcosm in the same figure, origin not visible
Source : Rig-Véda, X, 90 ; X, 129
Uddalaka Aruni (9th-8th centuries BC)
Agreement
The subtle essence of all things is identical to the self of man.
The invisible core of the world is also the core of the soul
Source : Chandogya Upanishad, VI, 8-16
Thalès de Milet (624-546 by J.-C.)
Mixed
Everything is alive, filled with the divine; water is the principle
The anime spread throughout the cosmos, but still a material principle
Source : Aristote, De l'âme (témoignage), I, 5, 411a
Anaximandre de Milet (c. 610-c. 546 AD.)
Mixed
Unlimited and indeterminate principle from which worlds are born
An undifferentiated and unchanging background, but without soul or polarity
Source : Fragments, DK 12 B 1
Mixed
A single, immobile god, who thinks everything through a mind without organs
An unchanging intellectual foundation, without polarity or individual soul
Source : Fragments, DK 21 B 23-26
Lao-Tseu (VIe p. of. J.-C.)
Agreement
Beings carry yin and embrace yang; an indistinct thing precedes heaven and earth
Feminine/masculine polarity derived from a single source
Source : Dao De Jing, 25 ; 42
Agreement
"I searched for myself"; the soul has a growing logos; harmony is born from tensions
The inner world is infinite, and union is born from the tension of opposites.
Source : Fragments, DK B 101 ; B 115 ; B 51
Confucius (551-479 by J.-C.)
Mixed
Daily self-examination is the foundation of personal perfection.
Daily refinement of the self, but little metaphysics of the cosmos
Source : Entretiens, I, 4
Bouddha (~Ve p. of. J.-C.)
Mixed
Purify your mind; no permanent self
Purification of the self, but rejection of an immutable substance
Source : Dhammapada ; Samyutta Nikaya, 183 ; 22.59
Mixed
Being is one, immutable, without birth
Immutable substance, but multiplicity is denied.
Source : Poème, fr. 8
Anaxagore de Clazomènes (~500-428 BC.)
Agreement
The Nous, infinite and pure intellect, orders the cosmos
The intellectual component of the whole, separate from matter
Source : Fragments, DK 59 B 12
Leucippe (Ve p. of. J.-C.)
Disagreement
Everything is born from atoms and the void according to necessity
No immaterial substance or distinct soul
Source : Fragments, DK 67 B 2
Socrate (verses 470-399 of. J.-C.)
Agreement
Taking care of one's soul above all else; philosophy prepares one to separate the soul from the body
Daily care of the soul, in a separation of the soul and the body
Source : Platon, Apologie de Socrate ; Phédon, Apologie 29d-30b ; Phédon 64c
Démocrite (v. 460-v. 370 of. J.-C.)
Mixed
Man is a small world; everything boils down to atoms.
An explicit microcosm, but without immaterial substance.
Source : Fragments, DK 68 B 34
Platon (428-348 by J.-C.)
Agreement
The world is a living being endowed with soul and intelligence; the soul is related to the invisible and the immutable.
Intelligent cosmos, soul akin to the invisible, union of body and soul
Source : Timée ; Phédon, Timée 30b ; Phédon 79a-80b
Aristote (384-322 by J.-C.)
Mixed
The animal is a small world; the soul is the form of the body
A recognized microcosm, but soul and body united as form and matter, not separate.
Source : Physique ; De l'âme, Physique VIII, 2, 252b ; De l'âme II, 1, 412a-b
Mencius (v. 372-289 by J.-C.)
Agreement
All things are complete within me; one must cultivate one's nature
The great is contained within the small, and self-cultivation follows.
Source : Mencius, VII A, 4
Épicure (341-270 by J.-C.)
Disagreement
The soul is a subtle body composed of atoms.
Negation of an immaterial substance
Source : Lettre à Hérodote, 63-67
Bhagavad-Gîtâ (Inside, env. IIe p. of. J.-C.)
Agreement
Lower and higher nature; the field and the knower of the field; the Atman is invisible, inconceivable, immutable
The three attributes of the text (invisible, immaterial, immutable) and the nature/spirit polarity
Source : Bhagavad-Gîtâ, II, 25 ; VII, 4-5 ; XIII, 19-21
Lucrèce (v. 94-v. 55 of. J.-C.)
Disagreement
The soul and the spirit are mortal, made of very fine atoms
Negation of the immaterial substance and the immutable foundation
Source : De la nature, III, 417 sq.
Agreement
Review your day each evening to make amends
Daily ego refinement
Source : De la colère, III, 36
Agreement
The outer man destroys himself, the inner man renews himself day by day
Daily interior renewal
Source : Seconde épître aux Corinthiens, 4, 16
Évangile de Jean (Ier-IIe s.)
Mixed
The Word (logos) is the origin of all things; God is spirit
The intellectual component of the cosmos, but the Word is personal
Source : Évangile de Jean, 1, 1-14 ; 4, 24
Valentiniens (IIe-IVe s.)
Agreement
The pleroma is composed of male/female pairs (syzygies)
Masculine/feminine polarity at the heart of the divine
Source : Irénée, Contre les hérésies, I, 1-2 (témoignage)
Agreement
The world is a single living being, with a single substance and a single soul.
Cosmos animated like a great being, in which the soul participates
Source : Pensées, IV, 40
Agreement
The soul of the world and individual souls; purifying oneself as one sculpts a statue
Refinement of the ego and union of soul and body as a descent
Source : Ennéades, I, 6, 9 ; IV, 8
Ishvarakrishna (~IVe-Ve s.)
Agreement
Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (nature) unite like a blind man and a lame man
Polarity and union exist only because the terms are distinct.
Source : Sāṅkhya-kārikā, 21
Patañjali (2nd century BC - 4th century AD, dating uncertain)
Agreement
The union of the seer and the seen is the cause of suffering; yoga calms the fluctuations of the mind
Union born of separation, daily discipline of the mind
Source : Yoga-Sūtra, I, 2 ; II, 17
Augustin d'Hippone (354-430)
Mixed
Go within yourself; the soul is immaterial but united with the body
Inner cosmos; the union of soul and body is considered mysterious
Source : De la vraie religion, XXXIX, 72
Mixed
Brahman alone is real and immutable; the world is maya
Immutable substance, but the world is not a true component
Source : Commentaire des Brahma-Sûtra, Introduction (adhyāsa-bhāṣya)
Abhinavagupta (v. 950-1016)
Agreement
Shiva (consciousness) and Shakti (power) are one principle
Absolute masculine/feminine polarity
Source : Tantrâloka
Mixed
The universe and souls are the body of Brahman
Le cosmos comme corps d'une réalité invisible, mais non pure unité
Source : Śrī-bhāṣya
Agreement
The universe is like a man; man is a small world
Macrocosme et microcosme explicites
Source : Guide des égarés, I, 72
Agreement
Hierarchy of lights; the soul belongs to the world of light
Substance invisible et lumineuse, âme comme lumière
Source : Livre de la sagesse orientale
Agreement
The perfect man is the microcosm in which the divine is reflected
A reflection of the infinitely great within human beings
Source : Les Gemmes de la sagesse, Chapitre d'Adam
Thomas d'Aquin (1225-1274)
Mixed
The intellectual soul is the substantial form of the body
The union of soul and body is affirmed as a unity, not as an encounter of separates.
Source : Somme théologique, Ia, q. 76, a. 1
Maître Eckhart (~1260-1328)
Agreement
An uncreated core of the soul, identical to the core of God
Inner cosmos, common invisible ground
Source : Sermons
Nicolas de Cues (1401-1464)
Agreement
Coincidence of opposites in infinity; the small contains the large
Infinitely large and infinitely small combined
Source : De la docte ignorance
Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)
Agreement
L'univers infini est animé d'une âme du monde
Cosmos vivant dont l'homme est un reflet
Source : De l'infini, l'univers et les mondes
Agreement
Divine Wisdom (Sophia) as the feminine principle; man contains the three principles
Polarité masculin/féminin dans l'unité divine
Source : Mysterium Magnum
René Descartes (1596-1650)
Mixed
Deux substances distinctes, mais unies de manière substantielle
Union posée à partir de la distinction réelle
Source : Méditations métaphysiques ; Lettres à Élisabeth, Méditation VI ; lettre du 28 juin 1643
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
Agreement
Man is a middle ground between two infinities, nothing and everything; the union of soul and body is incomprehensible.
The infinitely small and the infinitely large, and the mystery of union
Source : Pensées, Brunschvicg 72 (Lafuma 199)
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)
Mixed
La pensée et l'étendue sont deux attributs d'une unique substance
A substance, a thinking face; but its extension is equal to its thought.
Source : Éthique, I, déf. 6 ; II, prop. 7
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
Agreement
Chaque monade est un miroir vivant de l'univers
Microcosm expressing the macrocosm
Source : Monadologie, §56 ; §62-63
Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Mixed
The starry sky above me, the moral law within me; the thing-in-itself is unknowable
Deux cosmos, extérieur et intérieur ; la substance invisible est inconnaissable
Source : Critique de la raison pratique, Conclusion
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775-1854)
Agreement
Une âme du monde ; la nature est organisée par des polarités
Polarité et âme du monde
Source : De l'âme du monde
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
Mixed
Le monde est volonté et représentation ; l'individu est un reflet du tout
Microcosme, mais l'ego est à nier, non à affiner
Source : Le Monde comme volonté et représentation
Gustav Fechner (1801-1887)
Agreement
La terre et le cosmos ont une âme
Univers animé, dont l'âme humaine est une part
Source : Zend-Avesta
Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)
Mixed
L'homme est une synthèse du fini et de l'infini, de l'âme et du corps, que l'esprit relie
Union de l'âme et du corps par un troisième terme
Source : Traité du désespoir, I, A, a
Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836-1886)
Agreement
Brahman et Shakti sont inséparables comme le feu et son pouvoir de brûler
Polarité masculin/féminin dans l'absolu
Source : Évangile de Râmakrishna
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
Disagreement
Je suis corps tout entier, et l'âme n'est qu'un mot pour un aspect du corps
Refus de la séparation âme/corps
Source : Ainsi parlait Zarathoustra, I, « Des contempteurs du corps »
Henri Bergson (1859-1941)
Mixed
Le corps est un organe d'attention à la vie ; l'esprit déborde le cerveau
Union âme-corps pensée comme limitation d'un fond plus vaste
Source : L'Énergie spirituelle ; Matière et mémoire
Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947)
Mixed
Le cosmos est un processus ; une nature primordiale et une nature conséquente
Polarity between the immutable and the changing
Source : Procès et réalité
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)
Agreement
Microcosme et macrocosme sont construits sur le même plan ; l'âme est divine
Cosmos interne et discipline de l'esprit
Source : Raja-Yoga
Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950)
Agreement
Purusha et Prakriti, transformation évolutive de la nature par l'esprit
Polarité esprit/nature et affinage progressif
Source : La Vie divine
Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)
Mixed
The anima is the feminine aspect of the soul in man; the unus mundus unites psyche and matter
Âme féminine, mais comme figure de la psyché, non du cosmos
Source : Aion ; Mysterium coniunctionis
Ramana Maharshi (1879-1950)
Mixed
Searching for "Who am I?" dissolves the ego, which has no reality of its own.
Primacy of the Self, but the ego is dissolved, unrefined
Source : Qui suis-je ?
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955)
Agreement
Everything has an "inside" and an "outside".
The internal cosmos and the intellectual component of the world
Source : Le Phénomène humain, I, III
Gaston Bachelard (1884-1962)
Agreement
Immensity is intimate; the outside and the inside echo each other
The big within the small, through imagination
Source : La Poétique de l'espace, Chap. VIII
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)
Mixed
I am my world (the microcosm); the thinking subject does not exist
An explicit microcosm, but without a soul or substance.
Source : Tractatus logico-philosophicus, 5.63 ; 5.5421
Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895-1986)
Mixed
The world is you; you must see the self in order to be free from it.
Identity of the world and of the self, but no progressive refinement
Source : Se libérer du connu
Disagreement
The "ghost-in-the-machine dogma" is a category error
Refusal of two separate substances
Source : La Notion d'esprit, Chap. I
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)
Disagreement
Body and soul are not two external terms that should be united.
Separation is not the primary issue, therefore union is not a problem
Source : Phénoménologie de la perception
Mixed
Uncreation of the self; the beauty of the world opens us to God
Erasure of the self rather than refinement, but an intimate relationship with the cosmos.
Source : La Pesanteur et la Grâce
Agreement
An implied order where the whole is folded into each part
The macrocosm folded within the microcosm
Source : La Plénitude de l'univers
Mixed
The subjective body is self-affected, prior to any separation of soul and body.
Original union rather than separation
Source : Philosophie et phénoménologie du corps
Daniel Dennett (1942-2024)
Disagreement
Consciousness can be explained without a soul or immaterial substance.
Rejection of the intangible substance
Source : La Conscience expliquée
Philip Goff (born in 1983)
Agreement
Consciousness is a fundamental aspect of reality (panpsychism)
Mental component of the cosmos
Source : Galileo's Error