Philosopher (era)
Position
Statement
Connection
Ptahhotep (Egypt, Fifth Dynasty, c. 2400 BC.)
Agreement
Listening well is a great good; the attentive ear receives the just command of Ma'at
Listening as a gateway to cosmic order: hearing first, like Shabda
Source : Maximes de Ptahhotep
Agreement
The Word (Vāc) precedes and sustains the gods; in the beginning the One breathed without breath
Vāc is a cosmic Shabda; hymn X, 129 admits that the source eludes description
Source : Rig-Véda, X, 125 ; X, 129
Uddalaka Aruni (9th–8th centuries BC)
Agreement
The same subtle essence animates both the tree and the human being: "you are that"
The soul is omnipresent in trees as well as in humans.
Source : Chāndogya Upaniṣad, VI, 8, 7 ; VI, 11
Thalès de Milet (624–546 AD.)
Agreement
Everything is full of gods; the lover has a soul
Soul even in the inanimate: omnipresence
Source : Aristote, De l'âme, I, 5, 411a7 ; I, 2, 405a19
Agreement
The world is number and harmony; the spheres produce music
The cosmos as a vibration audible to the purified soul
Source : Aristote, Du ciel, II, 9, 290b12
Mixed
The divine has nothing human about it; no one has ever known, nor will ever know, the truth about the gods.
Agreement: the divine transcends the mind; disagreement: no method guarantees it
Source : Fragments, DK 21 B34
Lao-Tseu (VIe p. of. J.-C.)
Agreement
The Dao being discussed is not the Dao; the great sound is almost voiceless
Listening without hearing, looking without seeing: hearing and sight turned towards the invisible
Source : Daodejing, 1 ; 14 ; 41
Mixed
Listen to the Logos rather than to man; the limits of the soul cannot be reached; eyes are better witnesses than ears.
Convergence on the Word and the depths of the soul; divergence on the order: the eye before the ear.
Source : Fragments, DK 22 B50 ; B45 ; B101a
Mixed
Heaven does not speak, yet the seasons pass; to serve men before spirits.
The silence that answers; but priority to ethics, without a doctrine of the universal soul
Source : Entretiens (Lunyu), XVII, 19 ; XI, 12
Bouddha (~Ve p. of. J.-C.)
Mixed
There is no permanent self; awakening is experienced
Primacy of experience; rejection of a soul-as-substance
Source : Anattalakkhaṇa-sutta, SN 22.59
Mixed
Being is one; do not follow the resounding ear or the eye
Agreement on the One; distrust of the meanings that the text takes as its starting point
Source : Poème, DK 28 B7
Socrate (verses 470–399 AD.)
Agreement
Divine inner voice (daimonion); concern for the soul above all
An inner voice that guides: the auditory soul
Source : Apologie de Socrate (Platon), 31c–d ; 29e
Leucippe (Ve p. of. J.-C.)
Disagreement
Everything is atoms and emptiness; the soul is material.
Material reduction, devoid of a universal soul
Source : Grand Diacosme (attribué)
Démocrite (v. 460–370 BC.)
Mixed
The soul is made of spherical, mobile atoms of fire.
A soul-fire reminiscent of Tejas, but without a spiritual dimension
Source : Aristote, De l'âme, I, 2, 403b28–404a
Agreement
Sight and hearing are given to us to contemplate the harmony of the world and to attune our soul to that of heaven.
The two meanings of the method; harmony of the individual soul with the soul of the world
Source : Timée, 47b–e ; 35a–36d
Mixed
The soul is the form (entelechy) of an organized natural body
Same definition as the text; but no separate universal energy
Source : De l'âme, II, 1, 412a27–b6
Disagreement
A corporeal soul that dissolves; death is nothing to us.
Materialism opposed to divine contact
Source : Lettre à Ménécée, 124–125
Bhagavad-Gîtâ (Inside, env. IIe p. by. J.-C.)
Agreement
Om, the syllable of Brahman; the light of the sun, the moon, and fire comes from Him
The two paths united: sound (Om) and light
Source : Bhagavad-Gîtâ, VIII, 13 ; XV, 12
Patañjali (2nd century AD–4th century AD)
Agreement
Om signifies the Lord; a luminous state free from pain
Method using sound (repetition of Om) then using light
Source : Yoga-Sūtra, I, 27 ; I, 36
Lucrèce (v. 94–55 of. J.-C.)
Disagreement
The soul is mortal, woven from subtle atoms.
Same materialist objection
Source : De la nature, III, v. 417 sq.
Agreement
A sacred spirit dwells within us; before a grove of ancient trees, one senses a god
Divine presence in humans and in trees
Source : Lettres à Lucilius, 41, 1–3
Évangile de Jean (Ier–IIe s.)
Agreement
In the beginning was the Word; the light shines in the darkness
Word and light united, like Shabda and Tejas
Source : Évangile selon Jean, 1, 1–5
Agreement
Faith comes from hearing; we walk by faith, not by sight
Listening before seeing
Source : Épître aux Romains ; 2 Corinthiens, Rm 10, 17 ; 2 Co 5, 7
Agreement
The eye would not see the sun if it were not like the sun; flight from the one to the One
Union with the One through luminous resemblance
Source : Ennéades, I, 6, 9 ; VI, 9, 11
Mixed
Nothing has an independent existence; neither absolute self nor non-self.
No soul-substance; silence before the ultimate
Source : Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, XVIII, 6
Umasvati (jaïnisme, IIe–Ve s.)
Agreement
Every living thing, including plants, possesses a jīva (soul).
The soul in the tree
Source : Tattvārtha-sūtra, II, 13
Augustin d'Hippone (354–430)
Agreement
You screamed and pierced my deafness; you shone and banished my blindness; more inward than my innermost self
Hearing and sight awakened by the divine
Source : Confessions, X, 27 ; III, 6, 11
Bhartrihari (~And so on.)
Agreement
Brahman is Word (śabda-brahman), the principle of all things
Direct source of the term "Shabda"
Source : Vākyapadīya, I, 1
Denys l'Aréopagite (Ve–VIe s.)
Mixed
Union in unknowing, beyond all names
The divine beyond the reach of the mind; a negative path rather than a method
Source : Théologie mystique, I ; V
Agreement
The Self (ātman) is Brahman, the light of consciousness
Union of the individual and the absolute
Source : Upadeśasāhasrī
Agreement
The supreme Word (parā vāc) and the light (prakāśa) are one consciousness
Shabda and Tejas not separated
Source : Tantrāloka
Mixed
Souls are distinct from Brahman, of which they are the body; union through devotion
A loving union, without merging
Source : Śrībhāṣya
Disagreement
Material intellect is unique to all; there is no individual immortal soul.
It challenges the notion of an individual soul uniting with another.
Source : Grand commentaire du De l'âme, III, comm. 5
Mixed
God is known only through the negation of attributes
Agreement: the divine transcends the mind; disagreement: primacy of the intellect
Source : Guide des égarés, I, 58
Agreement
Light of lights; the soul is illuminated light
Tejas as the principle of being
Source : Livre de la sagesse orientale (Ḥikmat al-ishrāq)
Agreement
Unity of being; the divine Word manifests itself in every being
Omnipresence; union
Source : Les Chatons des sagesses (Fusūs al-ḥikam)
Agreement
Voice of the valley, shape of the mountain: hearing and seeing are a single practice
Sound and light in a single awakening
Source : Shōbōgenzō, chap. « Keisei sanshoku »
Agreement
Listen to the reed (ney) that tells of the separation
Listening as a return to the source
Source : Mathnawî, I, v. 1–18
Thomas d'Aquin (1225–1274)
Mixed
The soul is the form of the body; God is known by his effects
Same definition as the text; but intellectual soul specific to humans
Source : Somme théologique, Ia, q. 75, a. 1 ; Ia, q. 12
Maître Eckhart (~1260–1328)
Agreement
Spark and depth of the soul where the Word is born
Unity deep within the soul
Source : Sermons
Grégoire Palamas (1296–1359)
Agreement
We participate in divine energies, not in essence; light of Tabor
"Merging our energies" with those of the creator; prayer and light
Source : Triades
Nicolas de Cues (1401–1464)
Mixed
Learned ignorance: infinity defies measurement
Contact transcends the mind; but the text proposes a way
Source : De la docte ignorance, I, 1–3
Agreement
Le Shabad (Parole divine) guide ; le Nom (Naam) unit
Shabda in the center of the road
Source : Guru Granth Sahib, Japjī, Ang 1–8
Mixed
Sparks of divine light scattered throughout the world, to be gathered together
Scattered light; but the divine withdraws first (tsimtsoum)
Source : Tradition lourianique
Jean de la Croix (1542–1591)
Agreement
Silent music, sonorous solitude; dark night
Sound and silence; contact beyond the mind
Source : Cantique spirituel, str. 14–15
Agreement
The Word, sound, and light spring forth from the divine source.
Word and light united
Source : Aurora
René Descartes (1596–1650)
Disagreement
The soul is a thinking thing distinct from the body
Rejects the soul as an organization of the body
Source : Méditations métaphysiques, VI (AT VII, 78)
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662)
Agreement
It is the heart that feels God, not reason
"Divine feeling responds"
Source : Pensées, Brunschvicg 278
Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)
Agreement
The soul is the idea of the body; all things are animate to varying degrees.
Soul as organization; omnipresence
Source : Éthique, II, prop. 13 et scolie
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716)
Agreement
Monads everywhere; the organic body is a divine machine
Souls at all levels
Source : Monadologie, §§ 14–19 ; § 64
Disagreement
I never grasp anything but a particular perception, never a self
No unified soul
Source : Traité de la nature humaine, I, IV, 6
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
Agreement
Consciousness is an inner voice, a divine instinct.
Inner voice
Source : Émile (Profession de foi du vicaire savoyard), IV
Emmanuel Kant (1724–1804)
Disagreement
The soul cannot be known as substance; a critique of fallacies
Limits knowledge of the soul
Source : Critique de la raison pure, Paralogismes, A341/B399
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854)
Agreement
Soul of the world; nature as visible spirit
Universal Soul
Source : De l'âme du monde
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860)
Agreement
Music directly expresses the essence of the world; the Upanishads, consolation in his life
Sound as access to essence
Source : Le Monde comme volonté et comme représentation ; Parerga, I, § 52 ; II, § 184
Gustav Fechner (1801–1887)
Agreement
Plants have a soul life
Soul in the tree
Source : Nanna, ou la vie de l'âme des plantes
Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–1872)
Disagreement
God is the projection of human essence
Reduces divine contact to a projection
Source : L'Essence du christianisme
Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855)
Mixed
Truth is subjectivity; a leap of faith
Primacy of lived experience; no universal method or energy
Source : Post-scriptum aux Miettes philosophiques
Agreement
Possesses a pure, good, and radiant heart
Radiant Heart: Tejas
Source : Les Paroles cachées (arabe), n° 1
Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886)
Agreement
God is perceived through direct experience: the sound of Om, the light, the samadhi
Way through sound and light
Source : L'Évangile de Râmakrishna
William James (1842–1910)
Agreement
Mystical states are ineffable, noetic, fleeting, passive.
Contact as an experience
Source : Les Formes multiples de l'expérience religieuse, conférences XVI–XVII
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)
Mixed
The soul is just a word for something in the body
Soul bound to the body; but refusal of any otherworldly realm
Source : Ainsi parlait Zarathoustra, I, « Des contempteurs du corps »
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
Disagreement
The "oceanic feeling" is a remnant of primary narcissism
Explain divine contact as regression
Source : Le Malaise dans la culture, I
Henri Bergson (1859–1941)
Agreement
Mysticism is contact with the creative impulse
Contact with a creative energy
Source : Les Deux Sources de la morale et de la religion, ch. III
Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947)
Agreement
Reality is made up of opportunities for experience.
Experience is present everywhere
Source : Procès et réalité
Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902)
Agreement
Om is the manifested Word of Brahman; raja-yoga leads to concentration
Way through sound
Source : Râja-yoga
Sri Aurobindo (1872–1950)
Agreement
The mantra is the Word that comes from higher consciousness; a divine presence, the psychic being, dwells within the individual.
Word and inner presence
Source : La Synthèse des yogas ; L'Avenir de la poésie
Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961)
Agreement
The Self as a totality; the collective unconscious shared by all
A shared psychic layer
Source : Psychologie et alchimie
Agreement
In the beginning is the relationship; the eternal Thou responds
"Divine feeling responds"
Source : Je et Tu
Ramana Maharshi (1879–1950)
Mixed
The Self is the light of consciousness; the quest is undertaken through the question "Who am I?"
Direct experience; but the seat of the Self is the heart, not the skull
Source : Qui suis-je ?
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955)
Agreement
Everything has an "inside"; a radial energy flows through the world
Universal Interiority
Source : Le Phénomène humain
Martin Heidegger (1889–1976)
Mixed
Hearing precedes speech; a call from conscience
Listening at its core; without soul-energy
Source : Être et temps, § 34 ; § 56
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951)
Mixed
The inexpressible reveals itself: it is the mystical
The contact is experienced without speaking.
Source : Tractatus logico-philosophicus, 6.522 ; 7
Paramahansa Yogananda (1893–1952)
Agreement
Aum is the cosmic sound perceived in meditation; light of the spiritual eye
Sound and then light
Source : Autobiographie d'un yogi
Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986)
Disagreement
Truth is a land without a path; no method
Rejects all methods
Source : Discours de dissolution de l'Ordre de l'Étoile (1929)
Disagreement
"The Ghost in the Machine": A Critique of a Separated Soul
Criticizes the soul as substance
Source : La Notion d'esprit, ch. I
Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995)
Disagreement
Infinity comes through the words of others; distance remains
Rejects the merger with the creator
Source : Totalité et Infini
Abraham Joshua Heschel (1907–1972)
Agreement
Wonder in the face of the ineffable opens us to God
Experience of mystery
Source : Dieu en quête de l'homme
Agreement
Pure attention is prayer; God comes to those who wait.
Silent listening as a path
Source : Attente de Dieu
Agreement
Life experiences itself; self-affection
Feeling as access to the divine
Source : C'est moi la vérité
Disagreement
Personal identity is not what matters
It challenges the "form-identity of the soul"
Source : Raisons et personnes, partie III
Daniel Dennett (1942–2024)
Disagreement
Consciousness is a functional illusion
Functional reduction
Source : La Conscience expliquée
Eckhart Tolle (born in 1948)
Agreement
Silent presence beneath the mind
Silence and inner contact
Source : Le Pouvoir du moment présent
Christof Koch (born in 1956)
Mixed
Consciousness follows the causal integration of the system, at all levels.
Internal organization; extended degrees
Source : The Feeling of Life Itself
Giulio Tononi (born in 1960)
Mixed
Consciousness corresponds to integrated information
The soul as an organization, measurable and graduated
Source : Consciousness as Integrated Information (2008)
Philip Goff (born in 1983)
Agreement
Consciousness is fundamental (panpsychism)
Omnipresence
Source : Galileo's Error