Philosopher (era)
Position
Statement
Connection
Ptahhotep (Egypt, Fifth Dynasty, around 2400 BC.)
Agreement
Greed is an incurable evil; righteous conduct follows Ma'at
Enrichment is relegated behind the cosmic order.
Source : Maximes de Ptahhotep, Maxime 19
Agreement
The One breathed without breath, by its own power, before any duality
A primal force precedes duality and ego
Source : Rig-Véda, X, 129 (Nasadiya Sukta)
Agreement
Vâc, the Word, permeates and sustains all beings
The Word as primary power announces Shabda
Source : Rig-Véda, X, 125 (Vâc-sûkta)
Uddalaka Aruni (9th-8th centuries BC)
Agreement
The original Sat emits fire (tejas), water, and earth; "You are that."
Fire, water, earth: the triad of the text, held in a unity
Source : Chāndogya Upaniṣad, VI, 2-4 ; VI, 8, 7
Thalès de Milet (624-546 by J.-C.)
Mixed
Water is the principle of all things; everything is full of gods
A unique principle and the divine within matter, without a transcendent Creator
Source : Rapporté par Aristote, Métaphysique ; De l'âme, A 3, 983b ; I, 5, 411a
Anaximandre de Milet (c. 610-c. 546 AD.)
Agreement
The limitless encompasses everything; opposites separate from it and then render justice to each other.
The Whole from which opposites emerge: duality is secondary
Source : Fragment (Simplicius), DK 12 B 1
Lao-Tseu (VIe p. of. J.-C.)
Agreement
Beauty and ugliness are born together; something indistinct precedes heaven and earth.
Relative duality, single source without a name
Source : Dao De Jing, ch. 2 ; ch. 25
Agreement
Harmony of the spheres; table of ten oppositions
Sound (Shabda) as the structure of the cosmos, ordered dualities
Source : Rapporté par Aristote, Métaphysique ; Du ciel, A 5, 986a ; II, 9
Agreement
One single god, always the same, who shakes everything with thought
A unique and immutable divinity, which prepares the chapter on immutability
Source : Fragments, DK 21 B 23-26
Confucius (551-479 by J.-C.)
Agreement
Ill-gotten wealth and honors are fleeting clouds; knowing Heaven's mandate at fifty years
Secondary enrichment before the order of Heaven
Source : Entretiens (Lunyu), 4, 5 ; 7, 16 ; 2, 4
Agreement
The world is an eternally living fire; the Logos unites opposites.
Fire (Tejas) and Logos (Shabda); harmonized duality
Source : Fragments, DK 22 B 30 ; B 50 ; B 51
Bouddha (~Ve p. of. J.-C.)
Mixed
Thirst breeds suffering; neither permanent self nor creator god
It converges on passions as obstacles, diverges on the Creator and vital energy.
Source : Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta ; Brahmajāla Sutta, SN 56, 11 ; DN 1
Agreement
Being is one, unbegotten, immobile
The immutability announced by the text
Source : Poème, DK 28 B 8
Anaxagore de Clazomènes (~500-428 BC.)
Agreement
“All things were together”; the Spirit (Nous) orders everything
A unified and ordered whole, governed by intelligence.
Source : Fragments, DK 59 B 1 ; B 12
Leucippe (Ve p. of. J.-C.)
Disagreement
Everything is born from atoms and the void, by necessity, without a Creator.
Deny the Creator and divine energy
Source : Fragment, DK 67 B 2
Démocrite (v. 460-v. 370 of. J.-C.)
Mixed
Sweet and bitter are conventional; in truth, atoms and emptiness; serenity (euthymia) is the goal
Relative dualities and serenity (convergence), but without a Creator (divergence)
Source : Fragments, DK 68 B 125 ; B 191
Socrate (verses 470-399 of. J.-C.)
Agreement
Taking care of the soul before riches; knowing that one does not know
Ignorance as the starting point, enrichment as a secondary concern.
Source : Platon, Apologie de Socrate, 21d ; 29d-30b
Platon (428-348 by J.-C.)
Agreement
A benevolent Demiurge fashions a living world, endowed with soul, fire, and earth.
Creator and All Living Things, with fire as its element
Source : Timée, 29d-30a ; 31b-32c
Aristote (384-322 by J.-C.)
Mixed
The First Unmoved Mover is pure act; contemplation is the highest life
Immutability and contemplative summit, but without a Creator
Source : Métaphysique ; Éthique à Nicomaque, Λ 7, 1072b ; X, 7
Épicure (341-270 by J.-C.)
Mixed
Desires are ranked hierarchically, the goal: ataraxia; the gods do not intervene.
Passions and wealth take a backseat, without the active force of divine energy.
Source : Lettre à Ménécée, § 123-124 ; § 127-132
Bhagavad-Gîtâ (Inside, env. IIe p. of. J.-C.)
Agreement
The divine is the taste in water, the light of the sun, the sound (śabda) in the ether, the brilliance (tejas) in fire
Almost literal source: water, sun, Shabda, Tejas
Source : Bhagavad-Gîtâ, VII, 4-5 ; VII, 8-9 ; XV, 12
Patañjali (2nd century BC - 4th century AD, dating uncertain)
Agreement
Ignorance (avidyā) engenders the sense of ego (asmitā), then attachment and aversion; Om names God
Ignorance then ego; Shabda as the name of the divine
Source : Yoga-Sūtra, II, 3-6 ; I, 27
Lucrèce (v. 94-v. 55 of. J.-C.)
Mixed
The tranquility of the wise, removed from ambition and riches; a world without creator gods.
Serenity and secondary passions (convergence), without a Creator (divergence)
Source : De la nature des choses, II, 1-19
Évangile de Jean (Ier-IIe s.)
Agreement
In the beginning was the Word; and in him was life, and that life was light.
Word (Shabda) and light (Tejas) united
Source : Évangile selon Jean, 1, 1-5
Mixed
Opposition of the flesh and the Spirit; fruit of the Spirit against works of the flesh
Passions subordinate to the Spirit, but a more pronounced duality
Source : Épître aux Galates, 5, 16-25
Agreement
Distinguish what depends on us; passions are judgments.
Passions put into perspective by knowledge
Source : Manuel, 1
Agreement
One single living world, one single substance, one single soul
The All Living and Unique
Source : Pensées pour moi-même, IV, 40
Gnosticisme (Ier-IIIe s.)
Mixed
Ignorance is the root of the fall; the creator Demiurge is ignorant
Ignorance is the root cause, but the Creator is implicated.
Source : Apocryphon de Jean, NHC II, 1
Valentiniens (IIe-IVe s.)
Agreement
Ignorance breeds anguish, knowledge (gnosis) dispels it.
Ignorance then confusion, knowledge then peace
Source : Évangile de Vérité, NHC I, 3
Mixed
Phenomena are devoid of inherent being and are interdependent.
Relativizes duality, rejects a substantial Whole
Source : Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, XXIV, 18
Agreement
The One overflows into Intellect and then into Soul; return through purification, flight from the individual to the One
Procession and return: a summit that is not that of the ego
Source : Ennéades, VI, 9, 11 ; I, 6
Augustin d'Hippone (354-430)
Agreement
The heart is restless until it rests in God.
The Creator as the source and end of desire
Source : Confessions, I, 1 ; X, 27
Agreement
Every effect remains in its cause, proceeds from it, and returns to it.
The Whole that unfolds by segmenting itself, then renews
Source : Éléments de théologie, prop. 35
Bhartrihari (~And so on.)
Agreement
Brahman is Shabda, the Word without beginning or end, from which the world proceeds
Shabda-Brahman: direct support for the idea of the text
Source : Vākyapadīya, I, 1
Mixed
Ignorance superimposes the ego onto the Self; the Creator belongs to the relative level
Ignorance then ego, duality dissolved into non-dual Brahman
Source : Brahmasūtra-bhāṣya, Introduction (adhyāsa-bhāṣya)
Abhinavagupta (v. 950-1016)
Agreement
Shiva and Shakti, consciousness and power; the Word (Vāc) at four levels
Divine energy (Shakti) and Shabda
Source : Tantrāloka
Agreement
The world is the body of Brahman
The whole that constitutes the universe
Source : Śrī-bhāṣya
Agreement
Light of lights, from which all things emanate by degrees
Light (Tejas) as the principle of being
Source : Livre de la sagesse orientale
Agreement
The Oneness of Being; the world is theophany
The All and the Creator are one
Source : Fusûs al-hikam
Thomas d'Aquin (1225-1274)
Agreement
God, the first cause, is immutable.
Creator and immutability
Source : Somme théologique, I, q. 9, a. 1
Maître Eckhart (~1260-1328)
Agreement
Detachment liberates the soul from self for God
Transcending the ego through detachment
Source : Du détachement
Nicolas de Cues (1401-1464)
Agreement
Coincidence of opposites in God; learned ignorance
Duality resolved in the One
Source : De la docte ignorance
Agreement
Divine contraction (tsimtsum) and breaking of the vessels: the divine light is segmented
The Whole that "segments"
Source : Kabbale lurianique (Étz Haïm)
Jean de la Croix (1542-1591)
Agreement
Purification of desires (nada) to attain the All
Desires in the background, the path towards the All
Source : Montée du Carmel, I, 13
René Descartes (1596-1650)
Disagreement
Two distinct substances: thought and extension
Elevates duality to a principle
Source : Méditations métaphysiques, VI
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)
Mixed
God or Nature, a single substance; servitude of the emotions and beatitude
Completely unique, passions secondary, but without a transcendent Creator
Source : Éthique, I, 14 ; IV, préface ; V, 42
Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Disagreement
Reason falls into contradictions when it seeks to know the Absolute.
Challenges direct knowledge of the Whole
Source : Critique de la raison pure, Dialectique transcendantale, Antinomies (A 426/B 454 sq.)
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)
Mixed
"The truth is the All"; opposites are dialectically transcended
The All and duality transcended, but through becoming and not through immutability.
Source : Phénoménologie de l'esprit, Préface, § 20
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
Mixed
Blind will is the foundation; its negation liberates.
Second passions and liberation, but without a Creator
Source : Le Monde comme volonté et comme représentation, IV, § 68
Gustav Fechner (1801-1887)
Agreement
The Earth and the stars are living beings.
Earth and sun as living beings
Source : Zend-Avesta
Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872)
Disagreement
God is the projection of human essence
Deny the Creator
Source : L'Essence du christianisme
Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836-1886)
Agreement
Brahman and Shakti are inseparable like fire and its power to burn; gold and desire (kāmini-kāñcana) are the obstacles
Divine energy and enrichment take a back seat.
Source : Évangile de Râmakrishna
William James (1842-1910)
Mixed
Mystical states give a feeling of unity without authority over others
Experience the Whole, with caution
Source : Les Variétés de l'expérience religieuse, Conférences XVI-XVII
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
Disagreement
“God is dead”: the old divine foundation has collapsed
Reject the Creator
Source : Le Gai Savoir, § 125
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Disagreement
Religion is an illusion born of desire
Brings divine energy back to the pulse
Source : L'Avenir d'une illusion
Henri Bergson (1859-1941)
Agreement
A vital force flows through matter
Vital energy
Source : L'Évolution créatrice, ch. I-II
Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947)
Mixed
God and the world in process, primordial and consequential nature
Creative energy, but immutability is contested.
Source : Procès et réalité
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)
Agreement
Prana is universal energy; every soul is potentially divine.
Vital energy and ego surpassed
Source : Râja-Yoga, chap. « Le prâna »
Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950)
Agreement
A creative Force-Consciousness (Chit-Shakti); the ego is a knot to be untied.
Divine energy and ego
Source : La Vie divine
Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)
Mixed
The Ego is subordinate to the Self.
The ego is relativized, without a religious framework
Source : Aïon, chap. IV
Agreement
The universe is more like a grand thought than a machine.
The All as thought
Source : L'Univers mystérieux
Ramana Maharshi (1879-1950)
Agreement
The root of everything is the thought "I"; to seek where it arises
The ego as a root, superseded by investigation
Source : Qui suis-je ?
Gaston Bachelard (1884-1962)
Mixed
Fire as a primordial image; the material reverie of the elements
Fire (Tejas) at the foundation of the imagination
Source : La Psychanalyse du feu
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)
Mixed
To perceive the world as entirely limited is mystical; what is not spoken is shown
The whole feeling, in the silence
Source : Tractatus logico-philosophicus, 6.45 ; 6.522
Paramahansa Yogananda (1893-1952)
Agreement
Aum is the cosmic vibration from which creation is born
Shabda and vital energy
Source : Autobiographie d'un yogi
Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895-1986)
Agreement
The observer is the observed; fragmentation arises from thought
Duality as fragmentation
Source : La Première et Dernière Liberté
Charles Hartshorne (1897-2000)
Disagreement
God changes and is affected by the world
This contradicts the proclaimed immutability.
Source : The Divine Relativity
Agreement
Having enslaves, being liberates
Enrichment takes a back seat
Source : Avoir ou être ?
Disagreement
The "dogma of the ghost in the machine"
Denounces dualism
Source : La Notion d'esprit, ch. 1
Jacques Lacan (1901-1981)
Agreement
The self is formed through imaginary identification and misrecognition
Ego built on duality
Source : Écrits, « Le stade du miroir »
Agreement
Gravity and grace; decreation of the self
Ego takes a backseat to grace
Source : La Pesanteur et la Grâce
Jacques Monod (1910-1976)
Disagreement
Chance and necessity, without vital force
Rejects the life energy and the Creator
Source : Le Hasard et la Nécessité
Agreement
Totality and implicit order; fragmentation is a mistake in thinking.
The whole that "segments" is only an appearance
Source : Wholeness and the Implicate Order, ch. 1
Agreement
The separate self is less real than we think; liberation from the "glass tunnel"
Ego put into perspective
Source : Reasons and Persons, Partie III, § 95
Daniel Dennett (1942-2024)
Mixed
The self is a narrative center of gravity.
Ego constructs (convergence), without the divine (divergence)
Source : Consciousness Explained
Eckhart Tolle (born in 1948)
Agreement
The ego is born from identification, presence dissolves it
Ego and duality overcome
Source : Le Pouvoir du moment présent
André Comte-Sponville (born in 1952)
Mixed
Atheistic spirituality: communion with the All, without God
Everything without a Creator
Source : L'Esprit de l'athéisme
Philip Goff (born in 1983)
Mixed
Panpsychism: consciousness is fundamental in nature
Consciousness and matter united, without a Creator
Source : Galileo's Error