Philosopher (era)
Position
Statement
Connection
Ptahhotep (Egypt, Fifth Dynasty, c. 2400 BC.)
Mixed
To live according to Ma'at (the just order), to control one's heart and speech in the presence of the powerful
Social restraint is akin to the constraint of conventions, but here it serves a just order, not an illusion.
Source : Maximes de Ptahhotep
Agreement
Before being and non-being, the One breathed without breath; the origin of creation remains an enigma, even for the gods
Creation is questioned back to its origin; the One precedes all form
Source : Rig-Véda, X, 129 (Nasadiya Sukta)
Agreement
The Word (Vāc) has four degrees, three of which remain hidden; men only speak of the fourth.
The Word has a hidden face: Shabda as the source of forms
Source : Rig-Véda, I, 164, 45
Uddalaka Aruni (9th-8th centuries BC)
Agreement
All transformation is but a name born of the word; fire (tejas) is the first emanation of Being; "You are that"
Speech and fire are already united at the source: Shabda and Tejas
Source : Chandogya Upanishad, VI, 1, 4 ; VI, 2, 3 ; VI, 8, 7
Thalès de Milet (624-546 by J.-C.)
Mixed
A single principle, water, beneath the multiplicity of things
A unique essence beneath the surface, without the idea of illusion.
Source : Fragments rapportés par Aristote, Métaphysique, A 3, 983b
Lao-Tseu (VIe p. of. J.-C.)
Agreement
The Tao that can be spoken of is not the constant Tao; when the great Tao declines, codified virtues emerge.
Words cannot capture the essence; conventions arise when the path is forgotten.
Source : Daodejing, chap. 1 ; chap. 18
Mixed
The cosmos is number and harmony
Vibration and measurement, as the foundation of the world, echo the Word-sound
Source : Aucun écrit conservé
Mixed
No one has ever known, nor will anyone ever know, the truth; opinion reigns supreme in all things.
Opinion covers the truth; the text adds a way out
Source : Fragments, DK 21 B34
Confucius (551-479 by J.-C.)
Disagreement
To conquer oneself and return to rituals, that is humanity (ren)
The conventions here are educational, not repressive.
Source : Entretiens (Lunyu), XII, 1
Bouddha (~Ve p. of. J.-C.)
Agreement
All composite things are impermanent, unsatisfactory, and without self.
Impermanence and suffering as the fabric of ordinary reality
Source : Dhammapada, 277-279
Agreement
The logos is common, but most live as if asleep; the cosmos is an ever-burning fire; nature likes to hide
Logos and fire: Shabda and Tejas in Greek vocabulary
Source : Fragments, DK 22 B1 ; B30 ; B123
Agreement
The path of truth (being) versus the path of mortal opinions
Only one true reality, contrary to appearances.
Source : Poème, DK 28 B1 ; B8
Socrate (verses 470-399 of. J.-C.)
Mixed
An unexamined life is not worth living; knowing that one does not know
Self-examination versus conformism; little ontology of illusion
Source : Platon, Apologie de Socrate, 38a
Leucippe (Ve p. of. J.-C.)
Disagreement
Nothing happens by chance: everything arises from reason and necessity.
A world of necessity, without a divine state
Source : Fragments, DK 67 B2
Démocrite (v. 460-370 of. J.-C.)
Mixed
By convention, sweet; by convention, bitter; in truth, atoms and the void
Sensible qualities are conventions; reality is matter, not union
Source : Fragments, DK 68 B9
Platon (428-348 by J.-C.)
Agreement
Men mistake shadows for reality, and leaving the cave is a conversion
The veil of appearances and the light that liberates from it
Source : La République, VII, 514a-517a
Aristote (384-322 by J.-C.)
Disagreement
All men naturally desire to know; sensible reality is substance
The reality of the world is not in doubt
Source : Métaphysique, A 1, 980a
Épicure (341-270 by J.-C.)
Mixed
Distinguishing between natural and necessary desires and vain desires
The body's needs are legitimate; what is troubling is the empty opinion
Source : Lettre à Ménécée, 127-132
Bhagavad-Gîtâ (env. IIe p. of. J.-C.)
Agreement
My divine maya, made of gunas, is difficult to cross; I am the sound (sabda) in the ether and the radiance (tejas) of luminous beings
The sound and the brilliance named in their connection with the divine
Source : Bhagavad-Gîtâ, VII, 8 ; VII, 14 ; X, 36 ; XV, 12
Patañjali (IIe p. of. J.-C.-IVe p.)
Agreement
Yoga is the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind; ignorance mistakes the impermanent for the permanent
Ignorance as a source of afflictions
Source : Yoga-Sūtra, I, 2 ; II, 3-5
Lucrèce (v. 94-55 by J.-C.)
Mixed
Banish the fear of the gods and of death through knowledge of nature
Dispelling illusions without a divine state
Source : De la nature des choses (De rerum natura), I, 101
Agreement
Not to conform to the present century; to see for the moment as in a mirror
Non-compliance and the lifting of the veil in the union
Source : Épître aux Romains ; Première épître aux Corinthiens, Rm 12, 2 ; 1 Co 13, 12
Évangile de Jean (Ier-IIe s.)
Agreement
In the beginning was the Word; the light shines in the darkness
The Word and the Light: Shabda and Tejas
Source : Évangile selon Jean, 1, 1-5
Agreement
It is not things that disturb men, but their judgments.
The problem lies in the opinion about things
Source : Manuel, 5
Agreement
Everything is an opinion
The things of this world are judgments.
Source : Pensées, II, 15
Mixed
Nothing has an independent existence; there is no difference between saṃsāra and nirvāṇa
Even the divine state is empty: dissolution goes beyond the text
Source : Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, XXIV, 18 ; XXV, 19-20
Agreement
Flight from the individual to the One; return to the One through stripping away
Union as the only term
Source : Ennéades, VI, 9 [9], 11
Agreement
Everything is just representation (vijñaptimātra)
The world as a projection of the mind
Source : Vasubandhu, Vimśatikā, 1
Augustin d'Hippone (354-430)
Agreement
Our hearts are restless until they rest in God.
Anxiety as a sign of involution
Source : Confessions, I, 1
Bhartrihari (~And so on.)
Agreement
Brahman, without beginning or end, the essence of the Word (śabda), manifests itself as world
The Word as Foundation: Shabda
Source : Vākyapadīya, I, 1
Agreement
Brahman alone is real; the world is an illusion (māyā) through superimposition.
The illusion with the exception of union: the thesis of the text
Source : Vivekachudamani ; Commentaire des Brahma-Sūtra, v. 20 ; introduction (adhyāsa)
Abhinavagupta (v. 950-1016)
Mixed
The world is a manifestation (ābhāsa) of consciousness-light, both light (prakāśa) and resonance (vimarśa)
Light and resonance: Tejas and Shabda, in a vision where the world is real
Source : Tantrāloka ; Īśvara-pratyabhijñā-vimarśinī
Disagreement
The world is real, the body of God; a critique of Shankara's māyā
The world is not an illusion
Source : Śrībhāṣya
Mixed
The world is a theophany, an appearance of the divine in the imagination
The veil is both a manifestation and an illusion.
Source : Les Gemmes de la sagesse (Fusûs al-Hikam)
Maître Eckhart (~1260-1328)
Agreement
Detachment leads to the birth of the Word in the soul
The Word that is born when attachment falls away
Source : Du détachement (Traité)
Jean de la Croix (1542-1591)
Agreement
The dark night: stripping away of the senses and the mind until union
The stripping of votes as a path towards unity
Source : La Montée du Carmel ; La Nuit obscure
Agreement
The divine Word as its creator, fire as the principle of manifestation
Sound and fire in a Western mysticism
Source : Aurora ; Mysterium Magnum
René Descartes (1596-1650)
Mixed
Hyperbolic doubt (dreams, illusions); the cogito as a fixed point
Everything can be an illusion, except for one point: the same structure as in the text
Source : Méditations métaphysiques, I ; II
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
Agreement
All of man's unhappiness stems from his inability to remain quietly in a room; distraction
Entertainment flees from the human condition
Source : Pensées, Br. 139 / Laf. 136
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)
Agreement
Bondage to the passions; knowledge of the third kind leads to the intellectual love of God
Emotional dependency and liberation through knowledge
Source : Éthique, IV, préface ; V, prop. 36
Mixed
The self is merely a collection of perceptions.
Identity is an illusion, without a divine state
Source : Traité de la nature humaine, I, IV, 6
Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Mixed
We only know the phenomena, not the thing itself
The known world is constructed by the mind
Source : Critique de la raison pure, Esthétique transcendantale
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
Agreement
The world is representation, a veil of Maya; the will to live is a source of suffering
The veil of Maya and the suffering of will
Source : Le Monde comme volonté et comme représentation, I, § 1 ; I, § 3 ; IV, § 63
Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)
Mixed
Despair as the illness of not being oneself; the crowd as untruth
Authenticity crushed by conformity; faith as a way out
Source : La Maladie à la mort
Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836-1886)
Agreement
Brahman and Shakti are inseparable; māyā veils the divine through attachment
Shakti, the divine energy, joins Tejas; attachment weaves the veil
Source : L'Évangile de Ramakrishna
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
Mixed
The "real world" has become a fable; herd mentality stifles life
Conventions are stifling; Nietzsche rejects divine exception
Source : Crépuscule des idoles
Henri Bergson (1859-1941)
Mixed
Intelligence spatializes reality; intuition grasps duration
The concept freezes life; intuition opens access
Source : L'Évolution créatrice
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)
Mixed
Maya is not illusion in the strict sense, but rather the statement of the facts of life; work can be worship.
Forced labor transformed into an offering; nuanced māyā
Source : Karma-Yoga ; Jnana-Yoga
Georges Gurdjieff (~1866/1877-1949)
Agreement
Man lives asleep, like a machine; awakening requires self-work.
The sleep of the man-machine is a response to involution
Source : Récits de Belzébuth à son petit-fils
Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950)
Mixed
Involution is the descent of Spirit into matter; the world is a real manifestation, and evolution prepares for a divine life.
Another meaning of involution; the real world, not the illusory one.
Source : La Vie divine
Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)
Agreement
The persona is a social mask; individuation leads to oneself.
The social mask and repressed authenticity
Source : Dialectique du moi et de l'inconscient
Ramana Maharshi (1879-1950)
Agreement
The search "Who am I?" dissolves appearances and leads to the Self.
The divine state as Self, beyond all appearances
Source : Qui suis-je ?
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
Agreement
The "one" (das Man) dissolves the authenticity of existence
Social conformity and lost authenticity
Source : Être et temps, § 27
Paramahansa Yogananda (1893-1952)
Agreement
Aum is the creative vibration and the light; māyā veils unity
Vibration and light united: Shabda and Tejas
Source : Autobiographie d'un yogi
Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895-1986)
Agreement
Truth is a pathless land; conditioning obscures perception
Conditioning as a veil
Source : Discours de dissolution de l'Ordre de l'Étoile (1929)
Agreement
Flight from freedom into automaton conformity
The repression of authenticity described on a psychological level
Source : La Peur de la liberté
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)
Mixed
Bad faith: lying to oneself about one's own freedom
Inauthenticity seen as a choice; without a divine state
Source : L'Être et le Néant, I, chap. 2
Agreement
Attention as a path to God; decreation; gravity and grace
Grace as an escape from the weight of involution
Source : La Pesanteur et la Grâce
Agreement
An implicit order enveloped beneath the manifest world
Reality manifests as an abstraction of a vibratory background
Source : La Plénitude du monde et l'ordre implicite
Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
Mixed
Disciplinary systems create subjects and their norms.
Social conventions as a production of power
Source : Surveiller et punir
Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007)
Agreement
Reality is replaced by simulacra.
Illusion in the Age of Screens
Source : Simulacres et simulation
Byung-Chul Han (born in 1959)
Agreement
The performance-driven society: the individual exploits himself
The trap of "optimizing" even the divine
Source : La Société de la fatigue